Malinke , também chamados de Maninka, Mandinga, Mandinka, Mandingo ou Manding , um povo da África Ocidental que ocupa partes de:
- Gâmbia
- Senegal
- Mali
- Guiné-Bissau
- Guiné
- Serra Leoa
- Libéria
- Costa do Marfim
Eles falam uma língua mandeca, do ramo mande da família niger-congolesa.
Os Malinke estão divididos em numerosos grupos independentes, dominados por uma nobreza hereditária, característica que os distingue da maioria de seus vizinhos mais igualitários. Um grupo, os Kangaba, possui uma das dinastias mais antigas do mundo; seu governo tem sido praticamente ininterrupto por 13 séculos. Começando no século VII d.C. como centro de um pequeno estado, Kangaba tornou-se a capital do grande império Malinke conhecido como Mali ( qv ). Este foi o mais poderoso e renomado de todos os impérios do Sudão Ocidental, agora imortalizado em nome da República do Mali.
Os Malinke contemporâneos são um povo agrícola, cultivando alimentos básicos como painço e sorgo e cuidando de pequenos rebanhos de gado, criados principalmente para comércio, pagamento de dotes e prestígio. As casas são predominantemente cilíndricas, com telhados de palha, e frequentemente agrupadas em grande número e cercadas por uma paliçada. Descendência, herança e sucessão são patrilineares. Desde aproximadamente o século XII, a população é majoritariamente muçulmana.
Demografia
Hoje, existem mais de 7,75 milhões de Malinke distribuídos por várias nações africanas dentro de um amplo arco que se estende por 1.300 km (800 mi). Começa na foz do rio Gâmbia, no noroeste, e circunda em forma de arco, terminando na Costa do Marfim, no sudeste. O território inclui áreas nas nações da Gâmbia, Senegal, Mali, Guiné-Bissau, Guiné, Serra Leoa, Libéria, Gana, Burkina Faso e Costa do Marfim. Existem vários outros grupos étnicos africanos que compartilham essas áreas. Dos 7,75 milhões de Malinke espalhados pela África Ocidental, há 2,8 milhões na Guiné; 1,1 milhão no Mali; 1 milhão na Costa do Marfim; 1 milhão no Senegal; 600.000 na Gâmbia; 400.000 em Serra Leoa; 400.000 em Burkina Faso; 200.000 na Guiné-Bissau; 100.000 na Libéria; e 100.000 em Gana. Eles não constituem um grupo majoritário em nenhum dos países mencionados. Na Gâmbia, representam aproximadamente 39% da população total do país, na Guiné, 32%, e na Guiné-Bissau, 14%.
Afiliação Linguística
A língua mandinga pertence ao ramo mande da família linguística niger-congolesa e é falada na Guiné, Mali, Burkina Faso, Serra Leoa, Costa do Marfim, Senegâmbia e partes da Nigéria. Possui diversas variações, mas está mais intimamente relacionada à língua malinke, da África Ocidental. Sua identidade linguística está ligada à sua identidade étnica. O mandinga é uma língua tonal na qual mudanças de tom são usadas para distinguir entre palavras, frases e expressões completas que, de outra forma, são construídas de forma idêntica.
História e Relações Culturais
Os Mandingas da Gâmbia e áreas circunvizinhas, os Bambara do Mali, os povos de língua Dyula da Costa do Marfim e do Alto Volta, os Kuranko, os Kono e os Vail da Serra Leoa e da Libéria fazem parte do povo Mandinga, que acredita-se ter se originado na região de Mande, perto da fronteira ocidental do Mali, no Alto Rio Níger. Os ancestrais desses povos estão associados ao grande império do Mali. Há indícios de que os principais movimentos de muitos desses povos ocorreram nos séculos XIV e XV.
O primeiro relato escrito da região veio dos registros de comerciantes árabes nos séculos IX e X d.C. Esses comerciantes estabeleceram a rota comercial transaariana para escravos, ouro e marfim. Entre os séculos X e XV, uma migração de povos hamítico-sudaneses do Vale do Rio Nilo chegou e então se estabeleceu e se misturou com os Mandinka. Em 1235, Sundiata fundou o Império do Mali. Entre 1312 e 1337, o Mali atingiu sua maior proeminência durante o reinado de Mansa Musa. No final da década de 1700, a savana ocidental foi colonizada por franceses, britânicos e portugueses. Foram os franceses que colonizaram o maior número de Mandinka na Guiné, Senegal, Costa do Marfim e Mali. Em meados do século XIX, um homem de Dyula chamado Samori Toure tentou reviver o Império medieval do Mali. Em 1881, Toure havia estabelecido um enorme império na África Ocidental que cobria muitas das nações atuais. Os franceses levaram sete anos para derrotar o império de Touré; mas em 1898 o Segundo Império Mandinga havia caído. Em 1900, as potências coloniais europeias controlavam toda a região. Somente no início da década de 1960 a região conquistou a independência.
Assentamentos
Quase todos os Mandinka mantêm uma existência rural, vivendo em conjuntos familiares dentro de aldeias. Cada aldeia é cercada por um muro; as casas são redondas ou retangulares, feitas de tijolos secos ao sol ou barro, com telhado de palha ou zinco. Essas aldeias rurais não têm eletricidade nem telefone. Muitos moradores nunca se deslocam mais de oito quilômetros de suas casas.
Economia
Os Mandinka são agricultores rurais de subsistência que dependem do amendoim, arroz, painço, milho e da agricultura de pequena escala para sua subsistência. Durante a estação chuvosa, os homens plantam amendoim como sua principal cultura comercial. Os homens também cultivam painço e as mulheres cultivam arroz (tradicionalmente, arroz africano), cuidando das plantas manualmente. Este é um trabalho extremamente trabalhoso e fisicamente exigente. Apenas cerca de 50% das necessidades de consumo de arroz são atendidas pelo plantio local; o restante é importado da Ásia e dos Estados Unidos.
O homem mais velho é o chefe da família e os casamentos são comumente arranjados. Pequenas casas de barro com telhados cônicos de palha ou zinco compõem suas aldeias, organizadas com base nos grupos clânicos. Embora a agricultura seja a profissão predominante entre os Mandinka, os homens também trabalham como alfaiates, açougueiros, taxistas, marceneiros, metalúrgicos, soldados, enfermeiros e extensionistas de agências humanitárias. No entanto, a maioria das mulheres, provavelmente 95%, cuida da casa, das crianças e dos animais, além de trabalhar ao lado dos homens no campo.
Divisão do Trabalho
Certas tarefas são atribuídas especificamente a homens, mulheres ou crianças. Os homens limpam a vegetação rasteira e preparam a terra para a estação agrícola e plantam e administram determinadas culturas. Além disso, os homens são responsáveis pela caça, pastoreio, trabalho em couro, ferraria para a guerra e construção de casas. Os meninos são ensinados a cuidar das plantações dos homens e pastorear o gado. Eles espantam pássaros e pequenos roedores das fazendas. Eventualmente, eles são iniciados nas responsabilidades da masculinidade. A maioria das atividades das mulheres ocorre em casa. As crianças são cuidadas principalmente por suas mães, que frequentemente são auxiliadas por outras mulheres da família. As mulheres também são comerciantes e artesãs. Apenas os homens tecem, mas hoje muitas mulheres costuram com máquinas de costura e continuam a fiar como faziam no passado.
Posse de Terra
A primeira família patrilinear que se acredita ter se estabelecido na área geralmente recebe a chefia ritual. O chefe ritual tem alguma autoridade em relação à posse da terra. A autoridade desse cargo baseia-se na crença de que um ancestral do chefe ritual foi o primeiro imigrante na área e teve que se reconciliar com os espíritos locais da terra. Ele mantém uma relação especial com esses espíritos e é o mais qualificado para mediar com eles em relação aos demais imigrantes e aos habitantes da área.
Grupos de parentesco e descendência
A sociedade Mandinka tradicionalmente se organizava em grandes unidades patrilineares de aldeias, que se agrupavam para formar pequenas unidades territoriais semelhantes a estados. Essas unidades se destacavam por sua continuidade. O homem mais velho serve como chefe da linhagem. Uma “linhagem menor” consiste em um homem e sua família imediata. Uma “linhagem maior” consiste em uma família de parentes e suas famílias, um grupo que, em última análise, cria um “clã”. Os clãs podem ser reconhecidos por seus emblemas simbólicos, que podem incluir animais e plantas. Se alguém viaja para outra aldeia, recebe hospitalidade dos moradores que compartilham seu sobrenome. Grupos de parentesco ainda maiores que unem os Mandinka a outros povos Mandinga são chamados de “dyamu”. Embora esse termo se refira a pessoas que têm o mesmo nome, acredita-se que todas essas pessoas descendem do mesmo ancestral. Pessoas do mesmo dyamu reivindicam hospitalidade e amizade em toda a região Mandinga. Um dos nomes dyamu mais famosos é Toure’, que foi o nome de líderes em muitos estados, incluindo a antiga Gana, o antigo Mali, Songhai e a moderna Guiné.
Religião
Hoje, mais de 99% dos Mandinka são muçulmanos. Os Mandinkas recitam capítulos do Alcorão em árabe. Alguns Mandinkas sincretizam o islamismo e as religiões tradicionais africanas. Entre esses sincretistas, os espíritos podem ser controlados principalmente pelo poder de um marabu, que conhece as fórmulas de proteção. Na maioria dos casos, nenhuma decisão importante é tomada sem antes consultar um marabu. Os marabus, que têm formação islâmica, escrevem versos do Alcorão em pedaços de papel e os costuram em bolsas de couro (talismãs); estas são usadas como amuletos de proteção.
A conversão ao islamismo ocorreu ao longo de muitos séculos. Segundo Robert Wyndham Nicholls, os mandingas da Senegâmbia começaram a se converter ao islamismo já no século XVII, e a maioria dos artesãos de couro mandingas se converteu ao islamismo antes do século XIX. Os músicos mandingas, no entanto, foram os últimos a se converter ao islamismo, principalmente na primeira metade do século XX. Como em outros lugares, esses muçulmanos continuaram suas práticas religiosas pré-islâmicas, como a cerimônia anual da chuva e o “sacrifício do touro negro” às suas antigas divindades.
Cerimônias
Os Mandinka celebram oficialmente os feriados de ambas as principais religiões (Islã e Cristianismo) e praticam a tolerância. No entanto, há uma ênfase convencional nos modos de vida, vestimenta e celebrações indígenas, que continuam sendo parte integrante da vida cotidiana. Os Mandinka celebram o fim do Ramadã, o Tabaski (a matança do carneiro) e o aniversário do Profeta Muhammad. Eles também celebram casamentos, circuncisões e a chegada de convidados especiais. Embora todos os Mandinka sejam muçulmanos, eles também celebram os feriados cristãos da Páscoa e do Natal.
Morte e vida após a morte
Os muçulmanos mandingas se consideram seres separados e distintos de seus vizinhos “pagãos”, sentindo-se superiores em aspectos intelectuais e morais. Consideram-se pessoas a quem uma revelação foi “enviada” do céu para confortá-los. A transição para a vida após a morte é ordenada. Ao morrer, um mandinga se torna um cadáver “transicional”, alguém que não está completamente morto. O cadáver é lavado ritualmente, vestido com roupas funerárias brancas e costurado em uma mortalha branca. Como parte da escritura muçulmana, está escrito: “Em verdade, aqueles que não crerem serão lançados no fogo do inferno para permanecerem lá para sempre”. Os mandingas acreditam que aqueles que praticam boas ações são as melhores pessoas e que sua recompensa será permanecer com Deus no “jardim da vida perpétua”.
O rito final de passagem, a morte , não é visto como um evento natural para os Malinke. Sua palavra “morrer” também significa “matar”, e a morte é vista como causada por alguma força maligna. Ao mesmo tempo, acredita-se que a pessoa ascende novamente a uma das três regiões na vida após a morte: céu, inferno ou purgatório (em algum lugar entre os dois). O cadáver é banhado ritualmente e a água é coletada para que não cause doenças. Os homens conduzem o funeral enquanto as mulheres se reúnem nas proximidades. Um marabu sênior faz o elogio fúnebre e o imã diz as orações finais. Os homens carregam o corpo em uma esteira para o local do sepultamento com as mulheres lamentando. Ele é enterrado em seu lado direito, cabeça voltada para o leste, pés para o norte. Uma cerca é construída ao redor do túmulo para protegê-lo de animais; varas são colocadas sobre o buraco para fornecer um “espaço para respirar”. Diz-se que o cadáver é entrevistado pelo anjo Malika durante um período de julgamento de 45 dias. Naquela época, três cerimônias mortuárias eram realizadas, nas quais bolos de óleo e nozes de cola eram distribuídos aos presentes.
Sociedade e cultura
A maioria dos Mandinkas vive em comunidades familiares em aldeias rurais tradicionais. As aldeias Mandinka são bastante autônomas e autogovernadas, sendo lideradas por um conselho de anciãos da classe alta e um chefe que atua como o primeiro entre iguais.
Estratificação social
O povo Mandinka tem sido tradicionalmente uma sociedade socialmente estratificada, como muitos grupos étnicos da África Ocidental com castas. A sociedade Mandinka, afirma Arnold Hughes – professor de Estudos da África Ocidental e Política Africana, foi “dividida em três castas endogâmicas – os nascidos livres ( foro ), os escravos ( jongo ) e os artesãos e cantores de louvor ( nyamolo ). As castas dos nascidos livres são principalmente agricultores, enquanto a camada escravista incluía os fornecedores de mão de obra para os agricultores, bem como os trabalhadores do couro, os oleiros, os metalúrgicos, os griots e outros.
As castas Mandinka são hereditárias, e casamentos fora da casta eram proibidos. Seu sistema de castas é semelhante ao de outros grupos étnicos da região do Sahel africano, encontrado em comunidades Mandinka, como as da Gâmbia, Mali, Guiné e outros países.
Ritos de passagem
Os Mandinka praticam um rito de passagem, o kuyangwoo , que marca o início da vida adulta para seus filhos. Entre quatro e quatorze anos, os jovens têm seus genitais cortados ritualmente (veja artigos sobre mutilação genital masculina e feminina), em grupos separados de acordo com o sexo. No passado, as crianças passavam até um ano na mata, mas esse período foi reduzido para coincidir com seu período de recuperação física, entre três e quatro semanas.
Durante esse período, eles aprendem sobre suas responsabilidades sociais e regras de comportamento na vida adulta. Os preparativos são feitos na aldeia ou no complexo para o retorno das crianças. Uma celebração marca o retorno desses novos adultos às suas famílias. Como resultado desses ensinamentos tradicionais, no casamento, a lealdade da mulher permanece para com seus pais e sua família; a do homem, para com a sua.
Aniversário
Uma semana após o nascimento de um bebê, os Malinke realizam uma cerimônia de nomeação. Um marabu conduz as orações durante a cerimônia, raspa a cabeça do bebê e anuncia o nome da criança pela primeira vez. Se os pais tiverem condições, uma cabra ou ovelha será morta, e a carne será servida junto com bolas de massa abençoadas pelo marabu.
Ritos de puberdade e circuncisão
Os ritos da puberdade e a circuncisão são muito significativos na vida dos Malinke, tanto homens quanto mulheres. As crianças são provocadas por serem incircuncisas e, desde cedo, demonstram curiosidade e medo. É o rito de passagem mais importante, pois não se pode atingir a idade adulta ou casar sem ele. Para os meninos, o rito é realizado aproximadamente a cada cinco anos e inclui noviços de 6 a 13 anos, que podem formar grupos de 30 a 45 meninos. Há variações na cerimônia, mas a seguinte é típica. Uma cabana de circuncisão é construída com talos de milheto após a colheita em dezembro ou janeiro. Ao amanhecer, o noviço é carregado para o local da circuncisão nos ombros de um “irmão mais velho” ou guardião que já tenha sido circuncidado. Os homens da aldeia dirigem-se à cabana. Cada menino é circuncidado, após uma espera reflexiva, por um circuncisador ou ancião; o menino senta-se à beira de um buraco com as pernas em volta dele, e o prepúcio é enterrado no buraco. Ervas indígenas ou pomadas ocidentais podem ser usadas para ajudar a curar a ferida. Logo após a circuncisão, os guardiões correm de volta para a aldeia para espalhar a notícia, agitando galhos na dança das folhas.
À noite, os noviços, vestidos com roupas brancas e capuzes, entram na loja para iniciar um período de seis a oito semanas de reclusão. Eles carregam grandes amuletos quadrados para afastar os maus espíritos. Eles passam por uma educação em uma atmosfera assustadora, ministrada pelo chefe da loja e seus guardiões, que os ensinam a agir como um grupo coletivo. Os sons assustadores de um rugido de touro (uma tábua plana girada por uma corda) são ouvidos, e eles são ameaçados de que demônios malignos serão chamados. Eles aprendem canções de circuncisão que refletem os valores da sociedade, por exemplo, o respeito pelos mais velhos. Os noviços passam por quatro estágios de educação, incluindo um banquete preparado por suas mães. Quando retornam para casa com um novo status, haverá uma distância educada entre mãe e filho. Os meninos que foram circuncidados em uma cerimônia formam uma faixa etária, à qual é dado um nome; eles terão um vínculo estreito para a vida toda.
A circuncisão das meninas
A circuncisão das meninas é organizada e convocada pela “rainha da circuncisão”, uma líder da aldeia, uma parteira respeitada que supervisiona os rituais relativos às mulheres. As meninas são circuncidadas em grupos menores, e as cerimônias ocorrem com mais frequência. As meninas são carregadas nas costas de suas “irmãs mais velhas”, suas guardiãs, assim como as mães carregam seus bebês nas costas. Elas são vendadas e levadas a uma árvore simbólica das mulheres, usada para fazer ferramentas femininas ou almofarizes e pilões. Cada noviça, por sua vez, senta-se na borda de um buraco, apoiada por uma mulher mais velha atrás dela. A clitoridectomia é realizada por uma especialista mais velha. Bandagens e pomadas fervidas são aplicadas, e as meninas permanecem isoladas por dez dias a duas semanas. Durante esse período, elas aprendem os valores Malinke e como trabalhar juntas como um grupo. Os estágios de reclusão são semelhantes aos dos meninos. Nos últimos anos, tem havido pressão para que a circuncisão seja realizada em clínicas. Em geral, porém, a geração mais velha é muito relutante em abandonar esses rituais tradicionais, e a circuncisão ainda é um pré-requisito importante para o casamento.
Mutilação genital feminina
As mulheres do povo Mandinka, assim como outros grupos étnicos próximos a elas, tradicionalmente praticam a mutilação genital feminina (MGF), tradicionalmente chamada de “circuncisão feminina”. De acordo com a UNICEF, a taxa de prevalência de mutilação genital feminina entre os Mandinkas da Gâmbia é a mais alta, com mais de 96%, seguida pela MGF entre as mulheres do povo Jola, com 91%, e entre o povo Fula, com 88%. Entre as mulheres Mandinka de alguns outros países da África Ocidental, a taxa de prevalência de MGF é menor, mas varia entre 40% e 90%. Essa prática cultural, localmente chamada de Niaka , Kuyungo , Musolula Karoola ou Bondo , envolve a remoção parcial ou total do clitóris ou, alternativamente, a remoção parcial ou total dos pequenos lábios com o clitóris.
Algumas pesquisas, como as do Comitê de Práticas Tradicionais da Gâmbia (GAMCOTRAP), estimam que a MGF seja prevalente entre 100% dos Mandinkas na Gâmbia. Em 2010, após esforços comunitários do UNICEF e de órgãos governamentais locais, diversas organizações de mulheres Mandinka se comprometeram a abandonar as práticas de mutilação genital feminina.
Casado
Os casamentos são tradicionalmente arranjados por familiares, e não pela noiva ou pelo noivo. Essa prática é particularmente comum nas áreas rurais. Nozes de cola, uma noz amarga de uma árvore, são enviadas formalmente pela família do pretendente aos anciãos da futura noiva e, se aceitas, o namoro tem início.
A poligamia é praticada entre os Mandinka desde os tempos pré-islâmicos. Um homem Mandinka tem o direito legal de ter até quatro esposas, desde que seja capaz de cuidar de cada uma delas igualmente. Os Mandinka acreditam que a glória suprema de qualquer mulher é a capacidade de gerar filhos, especialmente meninos. A primeira esposa tem autoridade sobre as esposas subsequentes. O marido tem controle total sobre suas esposas e é responsável por alimentá-las e vesti-las. Ele também auxilia os pais das esposas quando necessário. Espera-se que as esposas vivam juntas em harmonia, pelo menos superficialmente. Elas compartilham as responsabilidades de trabalho do complexo, como cozinhar, lavar roupa e outras tarefas.
O casamento não acontece em um dia ou mesmo ao longo de vários anos. É um processo que ocorre ao longo da vida dos indivíduos e é acompanhado por presentes obrigatórios. Antigamente, na sociedade Mandinka, os pais arranjavam o casamento de uma filha enquanto ela ainda era bebê. Embora os casamentos ainda sejam arranjados, eles não são tão cedo. O noivo é obrigado a trabalhar para a família da noiva antes e depois do casamento. Ele também deve pagar à família da moça um dote. A poligamia ilimitada é permitida, mas os homens raramente têm mais de três esposas.
Os laços matrimoniais são importantes para criar e consolidar laços entre famílias. O casamento de uma moça Malinke pode começar com seu noivado ao nascer com um rapaz de 12 anos ou menos. O parceiro preferencial para o casamento é o primo cruzado matrilateral: o rapaz fica noivo da filha do irmão de sua mãe. Antes do casamento, várias etapas do pagamento do preço da noiva pelo pretendente aos pais da futura noiva são realizadas, levando de três a sete anos. As parcelas incluem dinheiro, nozes de cola (nozes amargas e levemente alucinógenas), sal e alguns animais. Embora a moça possa dormir intermitentemente com seu futuro marido, ela não pode ir morar em seu complexo até que o pagamento integral seja feito, o que representa uma grande quantia na economia Malinke. Presentes adicionais são feitos à sogra da noiva antes que a cerimônia de casamento possa ocorrer.
O casamento típico de Malinke, chamado de “transferência da noiva”, acontece numa quinta ou sexta-feira — os dois dias mais sagrados da semana. A noiva veste-se de azul-escuro com um avental branco, um turbante azul e um xale azul-escuro sobre a cabeça, com apenas os olhos à mostra. Ela usa tornozeleiras e pulseiras de contas de prata e amarra uma moeda de prata no cabelo. A “rainha da circuncisão” chega à casa da noiva e executa uma dança. A noiva caminha atrás da rainha com as mãos nos quadris dela; isso é chamado de “carregar a noiva”. As duas são seguidas por uma multidão de mulheres, simbolicamente chorando porque a noiva deixará a casa dos pais. A noiva vai para a casa do marido e senta-se na cama dele. Começa um período de reclusão de até três dias, período em que a noiva é considerada muito vulnerável a um espírito maligno. A reclusão termina quando o marido revela a esposa. As mulheres da aldeia dão presentes de utensílios de cozinha e realizam uma dança.
Unidade Doméstica
A sociedade Mandinka é patrilinear e dominada pelos homens, e a família é a menor unidade social. De muitas maneiras, a família nuclear é a base das visões de mundo sociais, religiosas e políticas dos Mandinka. Geralmente, os Mandinka acreditam que o comportamento sancionado pelo conjunto familiar se reflete na sociedade em geral. O comportamento da família poligínica se reflete em termos de parentesco. Espera-se rivalidade entre meios-irmãos; inversamente, espera-se afeição entre irmãos.
Vida familiar
Os Malinke consideram famílias numerosas importantes. Os filhos são a riqueza de uma pessoa em uma sociedade agrária. Um grande complexo com irmãos e suas esposas plurais estará sempre movimentado com membros da família de várias gerações e crianças de várias idades. Meninas jovens com idade suficiente para carregar um bebê geralmente são vistas com um amarrado às costas ou carregando um no quadril. Os bebês são mimados e mimados, nunca lhes faltando atenção. As mães carregam seus bebês nas costas aonde quer que vão e os amamentam sempre que choram. Crianças pequenas têm certas tarefas para fazer, mas, em geral, levam uma vida saudável e despreocupada, com muitos colegas de brincadeira por perto.
Há uma divisão do trabalho agrícola entre homens e mulheres. Os homens aram, semeiam, plantam e realizam a maior parte da colheita. Alguns também se dedicam à caça e à pesca. As mulheres capinam e cuidam das hortas. As mulheres estão sempre ocupadas com algum tipo de trabalho, enquanto é comum ver homens sentados sob uma árvore na praça da aldeia, conversando com outros homens e fumando um cigarro e tomando um chá que as mulheres lhes trazem. As mulheres são responsáveis pela cozinha, que envolve muitas etapas trabalhosas. Elas coletam a lenha e a trazem de volta em suas cabeças em grandes feixes. Elas tiram água do poço. Elas moem o painço, o sorgo ou o milho por horas com um pilão e depois os peneiram para preparar o alimento básico, o cuscuz. Cozinhar a refeição envolve horas agachadas sob calor intenso, cuidando de potes de barro apoiados em três pedras ao redor de uma fogueira a lenha. Normalmente, as mulheres de um complexo compartilham as muitas tarefas de cozinhar e se revezam na responsabilidade pelas refeições. As mulheres também lavam roupas e realizam muitos trabalhos de manutenção e limpeza no complexo. Enquanto cuidam das crianças, elas geralmente realizam alguma atividade geradora de renda, como descascar amendoim.
O chefe de família é responsável pela aquisição de alimentos para a família, pela compra de roupas e pelo fornecimento de ferramentas agrícolas e sementes para o plantio. Os chefes de família têm autoridade para tomar todas as decisões importantes, embora as mulheres exerçam um poder significativo nos bastidores.
A organização social dos Malinke baseia-se num antigo sistema de castas no qual os membros nascem. Um Malinke nunca pode mudar o estatuto de casta em que nasceu. Raramente há casamentos entre castas. Numa aldeia média, no entanto, a diferença de riqueza ou estatuto entre as castas é pouco visível. Há um sentimento maior de igualitarismo, e todas as pessoas têm um estilo de vida agrário, cultivando plantações e cuidando de pequenos rebanhos de gado. O tamanho da família é frequentemente um indicador de riqueza; famílias pequenas com poucos filhos e poucos familiares alargados são consideradas pobres e infelizes. O sistema de castas é composto por nobres no topo, artesãos e griots no meio, e descendentes de escravos na base. É um ancião entre os nobres que serve como chefe ou chefe. Todas as castas podem fornecer marabus, mas certas outras funções são específicas de cada casta.
Os artesãos são divididos em duas ocupações principais: ferreiros e marceneiros. Os ferreiros são considerados os mais importantes da casta média. Eles fabricam ferramentas e implementos de ferro, como pontas de arado e cabeças de machado, além de móveis de madeira, almofarizes e pilões. Alguns ferreiros de Malinke conquistaram excelente reputação como escultores e artistas em objetos de ferro ou entalhes em madeira. Geralmente, também são os consertadores de bicicletas da vila. Os ferreiros têm reputação de honestidade e hospitalidade. Eles têm a importante função de circuncisador masculino e chefe da loja em cerimônias de circuncisão. Há muitos marceneiros que são apenas agricultores e não trabalham muito com couro. Alguns, no entanto, têm uma boa renda adicional fabricando bolsas ou estojos de couro para cobrir os amuletos gri-gri .
Os griots são os bardos ou contadores de histórias tradicionais, proporcionando entretenimento e cantando canções que mantêm viva a tradição oral do povo. Alguns apenas entoam louvores e recitam nomes honoríficos e parábolas do Alcorão. Outros recitam frases rimadas acompanhados por um baterista. Eles são pagos por suas habilidades em várias cerimônias. Muitos griots são músicos que sabem tocar o kora , um instrumento de cordas feito de metade de uma grande cabaça coberta com couro como um ressonador. Alguns griots tocam o balaphon , um xilofone de madeira com uma fileira de ressonadores de cabaça. Eles ensinam todas essas habilidades aos seus filhos desde cedo. Muitas vezes, os músicos migram de aldeia em aldeia para comercializar seus talentos.
Além das castas, os Malinke se agrupam em faixas etárias, consistindo de homens ou mulheres que foram circuncidados ao mesmo tempo e que mantêm um forte vínculo igualitário ao longo da vida. Às vezes, faixas etárias específicas são chamadas para realizar tarefas comunitárias. As faixas etárias masculinas passam por três faixas etárias, que são um aspecto importante do controle social. Os “meninos” são aqueles de 10 a 20 anos de idade, que são o foco da enculturação, aprendendo as normas e os valores adequados da cultura Malinke. Os “jovens” incluem aqueles de 20 a 40 anos que são solteiros ou que acabaram de formar sua própria unidade familiar nuclear; eles são responsáveis por executar as decisões tomadas nas reuniões da aldeia. Os “anciãos” são aqueles com mais de 40 anos que são chefes de unidades familiares extensas; eles são os mais influentes na tomada de decisões e na resolução de disputas.
As aldeias Malinke têm líderes seculares e religiosos, cujos papéis às vezes se sobrepõem. O líder secular é o chefe, que normalmente é descendente da casta nobre e dos fundadores da aldeia. O chefe preside um conselho de anciãos que podem se reunir para resolver disputas, por exemplo, se houver um roubo ou se o gado de alguém estiver danificando as plantações, ou se for necessário tomar uma decisão sobre a devolução do dote caso uma esposa abusada volte a morar na propriedade do pai.
O imã é o principal líder religioso, podendo servir a diversas pequenas aldeias. Ao contrário do chefe, o imã é eleito; o cargo está aberto a anciãos com sabedoria corânica, que não sejam descendentes de escravos. Sua principal função é liderar as orações na mesquita. Às vezes, o chefe também é um marabu, um curandeiro e conselheiro islâmico, que pode rivalizar com o imã no desempenho de deveres religiosos.
Muitas aldeias Malinke têm uma pessoa influente adicional que poderia ser considerada um líder: o kanda . Um kanda é um homem que se fez sozinho, que com sua grande família, personalidade forte, habilidades organizacionais e trabalho duro acumulou riqueza considerável. Ele não tem poder formal e não se refere a si mesmo como um kanda por medo de ciúme e alienação. Ele exerce muita autoridade em reuniões e quando decisões importantes devem ser tomadas. Devido ao profundo respeito pelos mais velhos, homens e mulheres, pode-se dizer que eles também são líderes de aldeia. Seu status cresce à medida que envelhecem, e os mais jovens são incutidos com o valor de respeitar os mais velhos.
Além do conselho de anciãos que resolvem disputas, os Malinke têm um meio fascinante de controle social — por meio do poderoso espírito demoníaco chamado kangkurao , retratado por um usuário de máscara que cobre seu corpo com casca vermelho-sangue, criando uma figura impressionante e assustadora. O kangkurao deve ser convocado pelo chefe, pelo imã ou pelo chefe da loja de circuncisão, que dá ao espírito demoníaco uma missão benevolente para realizar. A figura espiritual pode exigir que as pessoas participem de obras públicas, como cavar um poço ou capinar para prevenção de incêndios; ele pode impor tabus contra comer frutas até que estejam maduras; e pode disciplinar novatos em cerimônias de circuncisão. Além disso, ele pode exigir multas para aqueles que não obedecem. Embora a religião islâmica proíba imagens esculpidas, o kangkurao sobreviveu como parte da tradição Malinke.
Herança
Entre os Mandinka, o status na sociedade é determinado pela família paterna. A primeira lealdade é para com a família e começa com o homem mais velho. A riqueza passa do filho mais velho para os descendentes, mas isso está sujeito a mudanças, dependendo de como o clã avalia a capacidade desse homem de administrar a família.
Música
A cultura Mandinka é rica em tradição, música e rituais espirituais. Os Mandinkas mantêm uma longa tradição de história oral por meio de histórias, canções e provérbios. Nas áreas rurais, o impacto da educação ocidental é mínimo; a taxa de alfabetização em escrita latina entre esses Mandinkas é bastante baixa. No entanto, mais da metade da população adulta sabe ler a escrita árabe local (incluindo o Mandinka Ajami); pequenas escolas corânicas para crianças que ensinam essa língua são bastante comuns. As crianças Mandinka recebem seu nome no oitavo dia após o nascimento, e seus filhos quase sempre recebem o nome de uma pessoa muito importante em sua família.
Os Mandinka têm uma rica história oral, transmitida através dos griots. Essa transmissão da história oral através da música tornou a música uma das características mais distintivas dos Mandinka. Eles são conhecidos há muito tempo por seus tambores e também por seu instrumento musical único, a kora. A kora é uma harpa da África Ocidental com 21 cordas, feita de uma cabaça seca, oca e cortada ao meio, coberta com pele de vaca ou cabra. As cordas são feitas de linha de pesca (tradicionalmente feitas de tendões de vaca). É tocada para acompanhar o canto de um griot ou simplesmente sozinha.
Um sítio religioso e cultural Mandinka sob consideração para o status de Patrimônio Mundial está localizado na Guiné, em Gberedou/Hamana
A kora
A kora tornou-se a marca registrada dos músicos tradicionais mandingas. A kora, com suas 21 cordas, é feita de meia cabaça, coberta com couro de vaca e presa com tachas decorativas. A kora possui orifícios nas laterais, que servem para armazenar moedas oferecidas aos cantores de louvor em reconhecimento à sua apresentação. Os cantores de louvor são chamados de ” jalibaas ” ou “jalis” em mandinga.
Artes
Os Mandinka têm uma longa tradição de história oral e literatura. Os praticantes dessa tradição são conhecidos como griots (artesãos cantores de louvor, a divisão intermediária do sistema de castas), que recapitulam sua história e herança por meio de histórias e canções transmitidas de geração em geração. A Epopeia Mandinka, uma compilação de canções e contos que apresenta uma breve história cronológica do Império do Mali enquanto nação governante, é um exemplo importante da literatura oral Mandinka.
Principais feriados
Os Malinke aguardam ansiosamente os importantes feriados islâmicos. O favorito é o Tabaski, que geralmente cai na primavera ou no verão, sendo o dia determinado de acordo com o calendário lunar islâmico. O Tabaski comemora o momento em que Abraão estava prestes a sacrificar seu filho Isaac em obediência à ordem de Deus, quando Deus intercedeu e um carneiro foi substituído. Os Malinke começam a economizar meses de antecedência para a celebração, a fim de comprar roupas novas e ter um suprimento abundante de alimentos. O item mais caro é o carneiro ou ovelha, que será abatido no momento preciso determinado pelo calendário lunar. É prestigioso ter um carneiro muito grande e gordo para abater. Famílias que só podem comprar uma cabra ou uma galinha ficam bastante constrangidas. Nesse dia, as pessoas vão à mesquita, e há muita comida (especialmente carneiro assado) e visitas a amigos. Outros feriados religiosos incluem a Festa do Ramadã, celebrada no final do jejum muçulmano anual de 30 dias, e o aniversário de Maomé.
Roupas
Os Malinke que vivem hoje em centros urbanos, especialmente os homens, podem ter adotado roupas de estilo ocidental. Os aldeões, por outro lado, orgulham-se de suas roupas tradicionais, que são importantes para eles. Aliás, uma das obrigações do marido é dar a cada esposa tecido para pelo menos duas roupas novas a cada ano.
As mulheres geralmente usam uma blusa solta de gola redonda sobre uma saia longa feita de um pedaço de tecido envolvente. Elas costumam amarrar um pedaço de tecido combinando na cabeça, formando um turbante informal, com cada turbante feminino tendo seu próprio toque especial. Elas usam estampas de algodão de cores vibrantes com desenhos chamativos e grandes; algumas também usam estampas tie-dye, xilogravura ou batik. A vestimenta casual tradicional masculina é feita com as mesmas estampas vibrantes, em uma roupa que lembra um pijama.
Para ocasiões formais, homens e mulheres podem usar o grand boubou . Para as mulheres, trata-se de um vestido solto que se estende até o chão e pode ser adornado com renda ou bordado. Para os homens, é uma vestimenta longa, semelhante a um robe, que cobre calças compridas e uma camisa. Muitos homens de meia-idade ou idosos usam gorros de tricô. Os sapatos são de couro ou borracha.
Comida
Os Malinke tradicionais são cultivadores que cultivam variedades de painço, sorgo, arroz (nas áreas pantanosas) e milho como culturas básicas. Como culturas comerciais, cultivam amendoim e algodão e, para complementar a dieta e obter alguma renda nas feiras semanais, cultivam diversos vegetais em hortas. Algumas aldeias têm uma padaria onde são assados pequenos pães franceses.
Os Malinke, mais ricos, possuem algum gado — gado, cabras, galinhas e talvez um cavalo para arar a terra. O gado é usado para a produção de leite e pelo prestígio de possuí-lo; raramente é abatido. Há pouca carne na dieta. Aqueles que vivem perto de rios ou lagos podem complementar suas refeições com peixe.
Um café da manhã típico pode consistir em mingau de milho, comido com uma colher feita de uma pequena cabaça alongada, cortada ao meio. O almoço e o jantar podem consistir em arroz ou cuscuz com molho e/ou vegetais. O cuscuz pode ser feito de painço, sorgo ou fubá triturados e cozidos no vapor. Uma quantidade substancial de arroz ou cuscuz é colocada em uma bacia de plástico ou esmalte ao redor da qual se sentam os participantes da refeição. Pequenas tigelas de molho – geralmente molho de amendoim – ou misturas de vegetais são distribuídas sobre o arroz ou cuscuz. Os participantes da refeição pegam porções com a mão direita, formando uma bola pequena.
A hora do chá é um momento importante para os Malinke. O chá é preparado enchendo-se um pequeno bule com folhas secas de chá e cobrindo-as com água fervente. O chá preparado é extremamente forte e é servido com várias colheres pequenas de açúcar em copos minúsculos. Após a primeira rodada de chá, o bule é enchido com água fervente uma segunda e uma terceira vez, de modo que a segunda e a terceira rodadas de chá perdem um pouco de força.
Questões de gênero
A sociedade Malinke é patrilinear (dominada pelos homens) e a menor unidade social é a família. O homem mais velho serve como chefe da linhagem. Uma “linhagem menor” consiste em um homem e sua família imediata. Uma “linhagem principal” consiste em famílias de parentes e suas famílias. A maioria dos homens Malinke são agricultores. Os homens fazem todo o trabalho de campo manualmente, sem ajuda de máquinas ou fertilizantes. As principais culturas nativas desta área são arroz, painço, sorgo e amendoim. Há também muitos homens que criam gado. O gado é raro e é usado principalmente para mostrar prestígio ou usado como dote nupcial. Somente os homens podem ocupar cargos de alto respeito em uma aldeia Malinke. Entre os Malinke, os homens fazem o trabalho pesado da fazenda, caçam e pescam. Eles também ocupam cargos de liderança, como anciãos da aldeia e imãs . As mulheres ajudam na agricultura, bem como cozinham, limpam e cuidam das crianças.
Tradicionalmente, os pais arranjavam os casamentos de suas filhas enquanto elas ainda eram bebês. Hoje, os casamentos ainda são arranjados, mas não tão cedo. O noivo é obrigado a trabalhar para a família da noiva antes e depois do casamento. Ele também deve pagar à família da moça um “dote”. A poligamia é comumente praticada, mas os homens raramente têm mais de três esposas.
Os Malinke acreditam que a glória suprema de qualquer mulher é a capacidade de gerar filhos, especialmente meninos. A primeira esposa tem autoridade sobre as esposas subsequentes. O marido tem controle total sobre as esposas e é responsável por alimentá-las e vesti-las. Ele também ajuda os pais das esposas quando necessário. Espera-se que as esposas vivam juntas em harmonia, pelo menos superficialmente. Elas compartilham as responsabilidades de trabalho no complexo, como cozinhar, lavar roupa, etc.
Embora a agricultura seja a profissão predominante entre os Malinke, os homens também trabalham como alfaiates, açougueiros, taxistas, marceneiros, metalúrgicos, soldados, enfermeiros e extensionistas de agências humanitárias. No entanto, a maioria das mulheres, provavelmente 95%, permanece em casa como esposas e mães.
Fontes:
- Galeria de fotos: © Yolanda Obanos (2023)
- Fred Lindsey – Suplemento da Enciclopédia das Culturas Mundiais
- Wikipédia.org
- www.enciclopédia.com
- www.britannica.com
- Peoplegroups.org
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